Scientists Find New Way To Extract Diluted And Contaminated DNA

University of British Columbia researchers have developed a new way to extract DNA and RNA from small or heavily contaminated samples that could help forensic investigators and molecular biologists get to "the truth."

"By exploiting the physical traits of DNA – electric charge, length and flexibility – we've been able to extract DNA from samples that would otherwise not produce enough clean DNA for analysis," says UBC Biophysics Prof. Andre Marziali.

The technique is being commercialized through Boreal Genomics, a UBC spin-off company, and is expected to have broad applications from basic life-science research to forensic sample analysis, bio-defence and pathogen detection for food safety and clinical diagnostics.

The research team, which includes scientists from UBC and BC Cancer Agency's Genome Science Centre, details the technique in this week's Proceedings of the National Academy of Science.

Extracting DNA by conventional methods – which rely on the molecules' chemical properties – has proven challenging when there are only trace amounts of DNA or when the source sample has contaminants with similar chemical traits.

"We've found that DNA and RNA respond to electric fields in a way that is very different from other molecules," says Marziali. "By exploiting this unique property, we were able to extract high quality DNA from a highly contaminated sample from the Athabasca oil sands."

The team also successfully tested the technique on samples provided by the RCMP.

Get to Grips With Biochemistry

If you talk to the students in the years ahead of you in college most of them will tell you that biochemistry is a difficult subject. It's not!

Biochemistry studies the chemical reactions that occur in cells. Life, at the molecular level (and therefore biochemistry and molecular biology), is about forming chemical bonds. The things that living organisms do, such as grow and make "machines" which allow them to move, generate electrical impulses and perform other functions, all have one thing in common at the molecular level. They all involved atoms and/or small molecules being joined together by chemical bonds. When a house is being built bricks are "joined" together with cement. When structural components of cells and cell "machines" are being built the molecules that make up these structures are "joined" together by chemical bonds.

So, much of biochemistry involves studying the processes of forming chemical bonds between the molecules that make up the cells. For example, amino acid molecules are joined together by chemical bonds to make proteins which are the most important structural components of cells. Nucleotide molecules are joined together by chemical bonds to form DNA which is the stuff that the genes are made of.

In order to form chemical bonds energy is required. In this book we will look at the biochemistry of where this energy comes from. Now, it does not take a genius to work out that if it takes energy to form a chemical bond then a potentially good source of this energy is to break a different chemical bond. This is exactly how cells get the energy they need to form the chemical bonds between amino acids to form proteins, between nucleotides to form DNA and so on. The chemical bonds in certain molecules are sacrificed and the energy released when these bonds are broken is used to form other chemical bonds. So, why does biochemistry seem so difficult? Unfortunately, the processes of forming or breaking chemical bonds usually occurs in a series of steps rather than in one single step. Furthermore, many of these reaction pathways are interlinked with each other. This all makes it difficult to break the subject of biochemistry down into discreet, individual sections that are easy to study and learn. Even when you do break the metabolic pathways down into manageable sizes you never get a full understanding of what is going on until you can see how the different pathways interact with each other. It is a bit like a jigsaw. You can only deal with one piece at a time but each piece in isolation does not make much of a picture. Unfortunately, there does not seem to be an easy answer to this problem. Please, just carry on studying all the different pathways and structures individually. Don't get discouraged when you find it difficult to see the overall picture. When you have studied all the pieces (and there are not that many of them really!) you will eventually find that you will be able to fit them together to form the great picture that is the closest thing we have to understanding the meaning of life.

Whenever you get really confused as you plough through those enormous biochemistry textbooks or lost as you try and keep up with your biochemistry lectures ask yourself "What chemical bond is being formed or broken"? and you will find it much easier to follow what is going on.

I wish you an interesting time in your journey to understand what is known about how life works and of course good fortune in the exams you must pass to allow you to go on and pursue whatever career path you have set out on.

Paul M. Byrne is an MD and has worked as a lecturer in UCD School of Medicine and Biomedical Science in Dublin, Ireland.

He is the author of Get to Grips with Biochemistry - an ebook with 50 short chapters with short questions and answers taking you step by step through the most important biochemical pathways and chemical structures that you need to know to help you understand biochemistry and pass your exams!

Panic Attacks and Biochemistry - The HPA Axis (What?)

Well, buckle those seat belts tight, 'cause I'm bringing you some pretty heady stuff here. But, we'll get through it together just fine. I want to discuss something known as the HPA axis. This physiological interrelationship is of major importance to panic sufferers, so I'm going to get into a good bit of detail.

The HPA axis involves the interaction of the brain structure known as the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland (just below the hypothalamus), and the adrenal glands (at the top of the kidneys). These three pieces of anatomy work together to regulate functions and states, such as stress response, mood, digestion, immune response, sexuality, and energy usage. Now, to really capture the purpose and functioning of the HPA axis one needs to become familiar with a little bit of physiology. It may appear complicated, but hang in there because it's really important.

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) Also referred to as corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), it's produced and secreted by the hypothalamus and deeply involved with our autonomic and behavioral responses to stress. CRH stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Scientists have strongly suggested the biochemical fallout of CRH hypersecretion is a major factor in depressive presentations. And though studies have yet to produce evidence showing consistent changes in CRH concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid of panic sufferers, preclinical research indicates such evidence may be just around the corner.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Secreted by the pituitary gland, it stimulates the adrenal glands to ramp-up production of the mineralocorticoids and, of particular interest to us, the glucocorticoids.

Glucocorticoids Produced in the adrenal glands, this family of steroids is necessary for the regulation of energy metabolism, as well as immune and inflammatory responses. Cortisol is responsible for the vast majority of glucocorticoid activity.

Cortisol Produced in the adrenal glands and referred to as the "stress hormone," this glucocorticoid is best known for ramping-up our physical response to stress. Motivated by stressors such as distressing life-events, trauma, excessive exercise, anxiety, and depression, cortisol preps us for action by stimulating norepinephrine (noradrenaline) to flip the switch on our fight/flight response. Obviously, situational secretion of cortisol is natural and necessary; however, when it's secreted in the presence of chronic stress, all sorts of icky consequences may occur, like high blood pressure, hardening of the arteries, diabetes, immune system inhibition, muscle atrophy, and osteoporosis.

Now, the HPA axis is big on feedback loops. What are those? Most any system, biological or otherwise, has input and output capabilities. When the output of a system in some manner loops back to the system as input, and influences its functioning, a feedback loop has been established. A positive feedback loop increases system output, a negative feedback loop decreases it.

As it pertains to the functioning of the HPA axis, just as cortisol stimulates the activation of our fight/flight response, it also initiates a negative feedback loop, sending a signal to the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland to chill-out and relax. Well, as we consider the flow of the HPA axis, this serves to inhibit the production of CRH in the hypothalamus and the production of ACTH in the pituitary gland, leading to stable levels of cortisol. It also reduces noradrenergic (having to do with norepinephrine) activity, making us less anxious.

So really, this is all about a cortisol checks-and-balances system, and given the negative impact of chronically hypersecreted cortisol, that's a good thing. But never ever forget about the positive feedback loop created as cortisol signals norepinephrine and epinephrine (adrenaline) to get busy, because the result will be increased production of CRH, ACTH, and yet more cortisol. Just what the doctor ordered, right? Oh, our fight/flight response will be switched on as well. You think all of this may trigger a bit of panic?

Now, in so-called "healthy" individuals the noradrenergic system and the HPA axis work in harmony through, as we discussed, feedback loops, in maintaining a sense of stress-balance. When everything is operating as it should, as activity in the noradrenergic system increases, activity in the HPA axis follows suit. But in panic sufferers this delicate balance is interrupted by chronic and/or situational overproduction of norepinephrine, which messes up the whole works. As a result, the HPA axis becomes cut off from any and all noradrenergic activity, leading to an unmanaged increase in stress.

The term dysregulation refers to the inability of a neural system to maintain a balance of its intended neurotransmitter activity. If you haven't caught on as yet, noradrenergic activity in panic sufferers is theorized to be highly susceptible to dysregulation because of all of the funny business mentioned in the last paragraph. Most are aware of the success of the antidepressants known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI's) in the treatment of panic. Well, this success may well be due to normalization of a "dysregulated" noradrenergic system by the enhancement of serotonergic (having to do with serotonin) activity. Remember, as serotonin levels rise, levels of norepinephrine fall.

So there you have some information on something you may or may not have been aware of. No doubt, the HPA axis is a huge factor in the generation of panic. And as you know by now, one of my foundational clinical philosophies is "Knowledge is Power."

Consider yourself empowered!

Panic attacks can bring anyone to their knees. But you no longer have to be a victim. That's right, you don't have to live like that anymore. Check-out my creatively effective panic attack education and recovery eworkbook at http://www.hopeandhealingdynamics.com I know it will bring you relief.

Bipolar Disorder - What is the Biochemistry of the Disorder?

Research has shown that an abnormality in brain biochemistry causes bipolar disorder. However, the reason why these abnormalities occur is still a mystery and this requires involving brain scanning and other techniques.

There is estimated to be at least 100 chemicals in the human brain. These chemicals carry messages or signals between the brain cells or neurons. Some of these neurotransmitters have a strong link to mood disorders. So if there is an abnormality, chances are the person could be suffering from bipolar disorder or something similar.

Just to prove a point, the cause of depressive episodes are a deficit of the neurotransmitters called dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin. If there is an over supply, the patient will experience mania episodes.

Dopamine is responsible for controlling our body movements and pattern of thought. It also regulates how hormones are released.

Norepinephrine is used by central nervous system and the peripheral sympathetic nervous system. It controls our anxiety, arousal, "fight or flight" response and memory.

Serotonin, also called 5-hydroxytryptamine or 5HT, controls our appetite, body temperature, mood, sensory perception and sleep. It also regulates the rate at which hormones are released and is believed to have something to do with inflammation.

There is nothing you can do if your neurotransmitters are abnormal. Brain surgery won't do any good but getting the right treatment will enable you to manage the illness.

This, of course, can only be achieved by having a good relationship with your doctor. If his or her diagnosis has confirmed that you have bipolar disorder, you should put your trust in the professional.

One thing you should understand about bipolar disorder is that there is no "one treatment fits all." Some drugs work while others don't. And, what works for one patient may not work for another. If after a few weeks there is no significant improvement, they doctor will realize that increasing the dosage is not solution but a stronger drug needs to be used.

When working with drugs, you should ask the doctor beforehand what are the side effects. Although this is normal, you should be well aware of it. If you are looking for the newest and effective kind of treatment for bipolar disorder that was developed in the recent years, then why not read more about it at http://bipolardisorder.bestreferenceguide.com.